According to Freud and followers of psychoanalytic theory, the human psyche is a perpetual battlefield between instinctive drives and desires (represented by the Id), the constraints of reality on the satisfaction of those drives (the Ego) and the norms of society (the Overself). This constant struggle creates what Freud called “neurotic anxiety” (fear of losing control) and “moral anxiety” (shame and guilt).

These two forms of anxiety are intertwined with reality anxiety (fear of real danger) and what results is a depressing and threatening inner climate.

These mini-panic attacks are very unbearable, destructive and overwhelming so the person is motivated to defend against them. Defence is done through a series of defence mechanisms.

What are defence mechanisms?

Defence mechanisms first appear in the literature in Freud’s work, but not Sigmund but Anna Freud (his daughter) in the book The Self and Defence Mechanisms.

Defence mechanisms are part of everyone’s everyday life and are ultimately a form of self-defence.

The question is: how important is it for you to avoid the truth? On this question depends one’s ability to identify how people try to fool themselves.

Defence mechanisms are among the most common ways of controlling unpleasant emotions. Freud and the psychoanalytic school believed that defence mechanisms were used to control aggression and sexual impulses, but in reality defence mechanisms address a wide range of emotions, from anxiety to insecurity.

Depending on their adaptive value, defence mechanisms can be divided into 3 main categories, from basic to more advanced.

The more primitive a defence mechanism is, the less useful it is to the person in the long term.

However, we must bear in mind that in the short term, primitive defence mechanisms are often more effective than mature ones.

This, coupled with society’s general tendency towards immediate gratification (immediate gratification of desires), explains why many people continue to use primitive defence mechanisms long after they have outgrown childhood.

I. Primitive defence mechanisms

1. Denial

Denial is the refusal to accept reality and behave as if the source of the negative emotion does not exist, no matter what that source is: an event, a thought, or an emotion.

Denial is considered a primitive defence mechanism as it appears from early childhood. However, many adults continue to use denial to avoid confronting certain aspects of their situation.

For example, an alcoholic denies the problem they have and says they can function without problems without alcohol (but they don’t). A smoker will say he smokes because of his social circle and can quit anytime (he doesn’t do this either).

By denying the person is simply filtering out information that is contrary to their self-image or their view of the world or other people.

2. Regression

Regression means returning to an earlier stage of development when the impulses the person is experiencing are considered unacceptable.

An adult exposed to major stress may refuse to get out of bed or may even experience symptoms specific to a much younger age: like a first-grader who gets a tummy ache when he or she has to go to school, the adult will experience the same problem before going to work.

A teenager who experiences new desires and urges (e.g. sexual urges) will regress to an earlier stage of development and even exhibit behaviours associated with that stage. For example, they might (re)start bed-wetting.

An example of a regression you may not have thought of is road rage. Of course traffic won’t suddenly clear just because they’re angry but logic has nowhere to enter the mind that has temporarily regressed to what I call the “Mr Goe stage”: “why isn’t the train coming, I want to live!”.

3. Showing off

Showing off involves displaying extreme behaviour in order to express thoughts or emotions that the person otherwise feels unable to express.

Instead of saying “you’re upsetting me”, the show-off will break a plate or throw an object (preferably non-conventional) at the source of their frustration. He will punch a wall or kick another object. The person may feel better and relieved as a result of the show-off, as the gesture served as a release valve for tension.

Showing off means turning an inner conflict (usually caused by frustration) into an outer aggression.

4. Dissociation

Dissociation occurs when the person loses touch with him/herself and becomes lost in time and space.

Childhood trauma often causes dissociation mechanisms and, in extreme situations, can even lead to multiple personality disorder or dissociative identity disorder. The person who dissociates has the ability to disconnect from the real world and live for a time in an imaginary world where they do not have to face what they find too difficult to bear: thoughts, memories, emotions.

Dissociation can also operate on other people and is a mechanism usually learned in childhood.

The source is the child’s need to integrate opposing characteristics so that the world around them continues to make sense. His mother has both good and bad characteristics, sometimes she is attentive and caring and sometimes she is distant and cold. Because he is not used to the complex personality of the adult, the child constructs two separate entities: the good mother and the bad mother. Everything he does good is attributed to the good mother and everything he does bad is done by the bad mother. This perpetual cycle of idealization and devaluation is specific to narcissistic and borderline disorders.

5. Devaluation

Devaluation involves attributing negative or blameworthy characteristics to oneself or others (usually perceived as being in competition with that person). The aim is to punish the person or minimise the effects of their actions.

6. Compartmentalisation

Compartmentalisation is a milder form of dissociation, in which only certain parts of the person are extracted and seen as separate from the whole. This separation allows the person to maintain their self-image even in the face of contrary evidence.

For example, a person who considers himself to be highly moral but cheats on his partner, through compartmentalization does not have to face the reality that he may not have such high moral standards after all.

7. Projection

Projection is the misattribution of one person’s thoughts, impulses or emotions onto another person, even though that person does not share the same feelings.

Projection occurs especially when the feelings are considered unacceptable by that person. For example, a wife may get angry at her husband for not listening to her, when in fact she is the one who is not listening.

Or, a person who thinks of herself as not very bright, when she makes a trivial mistake that no one takes notice of, will start accusing those around her of belittling her and thinking her stupid, even though no one has said (and most likely thought) it. The result is that, for the moment, the person has given voice to their own insecurities but has done so at the cost of alienating others.

When whole collectivities engage in projection (ethnic groups, companies or even nations), Freud calls this phenomenon “narcissism of small differences”.

8. Reactive formation

Reactive formation is the conversion of unwanted or perceived dangerous emotions or impulses into their exact opposite.

A person who is fed up with the job and hostile to the direct superior, instead of expressing these feelings or resigning, might behave extremely friendly with the superior or express a desire to work there until retirement.

Another example is that of a man who desires a woman he cannot have (or does not want to get close to for various reasons) and the object of his desire becomes the object of the harshest criticism. It’s the ‘sour grapes’ phenomenon, inspired by the famous fable.

There are plenty of examples of reactive formation in everyday reality, if you know what to look for: a man tormented by paedophile urges will start a crusade against child abusers, another man with homosexual tendencies will found an association to fight against the rights of homosexuals to marry (sic!).

The politician who proclaims himself a moral standard will be revealed to have an impressive collection of pornography, frequently goes to prostitutes and snorts cocaine. The woman for whom family is everything will be found to have three lovers.

And so on. In general, strong negative feelings about something hide equally strong feelings in the opposite direction. It’s not a universally valid rule, just something to keep in mind when you hear very passionate speeches.

If hatred of something has no logical explanation, the explanation might be that what motivates the individual is not really hatred but desire.

II. More advanced defence mechanisms

These defence mechanisms are somewhat more evolved than the primitive ones, but they are not the ideal solution for dealing with the feelings we have.

9. Repression

Repression is the unconscious blocking of thoughts, impulses or emotions considered unacceptable. In the short term repression may help but the person will not be able to avoid confrontation forever.

Missed acts are a form of repression. When you forget to do something you don’t actually want to do (such as going to the doctor for a thorough check-up), that is both repression and a failed act.

10. Reorientation

Reorientation involves expressing thoughts or emotions to someone other than the source of those thoughts or emotions. Reorientation occurs especially when the person perceives a danger in expressing those feelings towards their real source.

A man who gets angry at work because of the boss comes home and kicks the dog or argues with his wife because he fears that if he argues directly with the boss, he could be fired.

Children who bully use redirection: to cope with abuse at home they start bullying other children at school.

The logic behind redirection is to unleash negative energy on a person perceived as inferior or helpless and, as such, less threatening than the real source.

11. Intellectualising

Intellectualization involves over-emphasizing logic and reason in the face of a situation or impulse perceived as unbearable. Intellectualization means the complete removal of emotions from the equation. It is a way in which the person tries to distance themselves from the situation, thought or impulse.

For example, someone who has been diagnosed with a terminal life-threatening illness, instead of expressing anger, grief or sadness, chooses to expend all their energy looking for life-saving solutions or medical interventions.

Unlike denial, by intellectualising, the person is not denying that something has happened but the emotional consequences that follow.

12. Idealisation and omnipotence

A common defence mechanism in personality disorders (narcissistic, borderline or histrionic disorder) is the attribution of extreme positive characteristics to oneself or others without any real basis.

13. Rationalisation

Rationalisation is the process by which a person finds an explanation for a situation that confuses them.

A woman starts seeing a man she really likes. When he begins to avoid her she says to herself “I suspected from the start that he was a no-good man”, although in fact he was not.

Rationalisation also helps to control guilt and avoid shame. It’s easier to blame other people than to take responsibility for your own actions and then attribute events to factors beyond your control or blame someone else for causing you.

14. Redemption

Redemption is a person’s attempt to counteract the effects of a wrongful behavior through a series of opposite behaviors.

For example, a husband who has insulted his wife will try to redeem that behavior with a series of compliments or praise.

III. Mature and productive defence mechanisms

15. Sublimation

Sublimation involves channelling unwanted thoughts or impulses into other, more acceptable activities. A person with strong sexual urges, for example, might channel those urges into a sporting activity.

Sublimation can also be achieved through humour or imagination. All types of artists use sublimation as a defence mechanism and as a source of inspiration or motivation.

16. Compensation

Compensation is counteracting perceived inferiority in a particular direction by emphasising existing strengths.

The trap that the compensator can fall into is that of over-compensation (which is a harmful and reality-falsifying mechanism). Moderate compensation helps the person to maintain and even strengthen their self-esteem.

17. Assertiveness

Assertiveness involves expressing thoughts and desires in a respectful and polite but firm manner.

Assertiveness is the opposite of both passivity and aggression. Passive people tend to be good listeners but often sacrifice their own needs in favour of others. Aggressive people can be good leaders but often lack empathy. Assertive people are capable of balance: they express their needs and thoughts without problems but are also able to really listen to the person speaking to them.

Assertiveness is among the most socially desirable characteristics and one of the major indicators of a person’s social interest.

IV. Defence mechanisms identified by me

In my therapeutic practice I have identified 3 other defence mechanisms, which I have not found in the literature but which I consider very important, especially because of their potentially high damaging effect. They sometimes appear in the discussion of resistance to therapy but I consider them defence mechanisms because they serve to confirm the individual’s own ideas about the world and life.

They come into play especially when therapy begins to have an effect and serve to keep the person from changing the beliefs that ultimately brought them to the psychotherapy office.

These are as follows:

18. Confusion

When a person receives evidence that what they believe is not in accordance with reality, they may choose to become confused.

Confusion indefinitely postpones the moment of belief change. It is a particular form of denial, when denial is no longer possible.

19. Self-sabotage

When a person is convinced that they will fail but reality gives them signs that they will succeed, they may self-sabotage to reconfirm their belief, even if it is to their detriment.

20. Procrastination

Procrastination is a neologism for putting off important actions for no plausible reason. A more appropriate translation would be ‘procrastination’, but I have not heard this term used very often.

It is a particular form of self-sabotage, whereby the person finds every possible excuse not to do what will benefit them.

Engaging in unproductive behaviour (for example, watching TV) is a very common form of procrastination.

Further resources:

Psychology Today

HealthLine

Psych Central

In conclusion

Defense mechanisms serve to protect the individual. But the ends do not justify the means and, as such, not all defence mechanisms are productive or healthy.

Most are not conscious but, through psychotherapy, they are brought into the conscious plane where the person can decide how effective they are and whether to keep them or replace them with more beneficial ones.

All defence mechanisms are learned behaviours and, as such, can be modified through conscious intervention and psychotherapy.